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• Inquiry article
• Open up Access
• Published: 03 July 2018

Cattle transhumance and agropastoral nomadic herding practices in Central Cameroon

• Thibaud Porphyre¹,
• Saidou M. Hamman³,
• Kenton L. Morgan⁴,
• Victor Ngu Ngwa⁵,
• Vincent N. Tanya⁶,
• Eran Raizman⁷,
• Ian One thousand. Handel^eight &
• Barend Mark Bronsvoort^one

BMC Veterinary Research book 14, Article number:214 (2018) Cite this article

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Abstract

Background

In sub-Saharan Africa, livestock transhumance represents a key accommodation strategy to ecology variability. In this context, seasonal livestock transhumance also plays an important office in driving the dynamics of multiple livestock infectious diseases. In Cameroon, cattle transhumance is a common practice during the dry out season across all the main livestock production zones. Currently, the little recorded data of the migratory routes, grazing locations and nomadic herding practices adopted past pastoralists, limits our understanding of pastoral cattle movements in the country. GPS-tracking technology in combination with a questionnaire based-survey were used to study a limited pool of 10 cattle herds from the Adamawa Region of Republic of cameroon during their seasonal migration, between October 2014 and May 2015. The data were used to analyse the trajectories and motility patterns, and to characterize the central animal health aspects related to this seasonal migration in Cameroon.

Results

Several administrative Regions of the land were visited by the transhumant herds over more than than half dozen months. Herds travelled betwixt 53 and 170 km to their transhumance grazing areas adopting different strategies, some travelling directly to their destination areas while others having multiple resting periods and grazing areas. Despite their limitations, these are amid the kickoff detailed information available on transhumance in Cameroon. These reports highlight fundamental livestock health issues and the potential for multiple types of interactions between transhumant herds and other domestic and wild animals, likewise as with the formal livestock trading arrangement.

Conclusion

Overall, these findings provide useful insights into transhumance patterns and into the related animal health implications recorded in Republic of cameroon. This knowledge could better inform prove-based approaches for designing infectious diseases surveillance and control measures and help driving farther studies to improve the understanding of risks associated with livestock movements in the region.

Background

In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), transhumance of livestock is a common do for pastoralist communities to cope with local environmental constraints, and fully exploit seasonal availabilities of grazing and h2o resources [1,2,iii]. Transhumance, therefore, describes the move of pastoralists and their livestock in response to the variability of ecology and ecological resources [1, 2]. Usually, these migrations are towards regions of different climate and tend to be to remoter riverine areas with poorer veterinarian or medical facilities [two]. Long-altitude livestock movements can contribute to the dissemination of owned diseases, or to the introduction and spread of exotic animal diseases [4]. In particular, increased movements and mixing of stock during transhumance are common risks factors for the dissemination of a number of diseases in SSA [5, 6].

In Republic of cameroon, transhumance is an established practice amid cattle herders to overcome the constrains of the dry season [7, 8], which usually extends from September/October through to Apr/May of the following year [3]. During this period, a large proportion of cattle herds from the primary livestock product areas of the state migrate equally a coping mechanism to the ecological and environmental constraints. In detail, transhumance represents an integral component of the livestock product organisation in the Adamawa Region, with around 50% of the cattle herders implementing such a management practice [seven, 8]. While herds in the North and Adamawa Regions unremarkably drift extensively covering long distances from their Region of origin, in the Due north-West and West Regions of the country most cattle herds tend to undertake a more local migration, largely within the Region [9]. Even so, knowledge of these migratory routes and trajectories in Key Cameroon is limited to anecdotal and informal reporting. Characterizing the seasonal transhumance trajectories and the nomadic herding patterns is, therefore, of importance for better agreement interactions within the livestock population and, hence, their potential implications for infectious diseases epidemiology and prevention.

Since 1997, several studies have investigated the motility behaviour of wildlife and livestock animals in Africa using global positioning arrangement (GPS) engineering science [ten,11,12] and, more recently, mobile phone systems [13]. Notably, GPS-tracking technology has been used in SSA to report grazing behaviour of costless-ranging cattle and their response to the spatio-temporal variability of vegetation resources [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21], to narrate the movements of nomadic pastoralist communities [22] and to collect information on the movements of both traders and traded herds [23]. Notwithstanding, to engagement, the formal application of GPS-tracking devices on transhumant cattle herds for the entire duration of the migration is still limited, and the understanding of transhumance routes, and associated migratory patterns, is particularly poor in the Central African region. Despite this paucity of specific information on the livestock transhumance patterns in Key Africa, previous investigations of grazing behavior of gratuitous-ranging cattle showed that the trajectory of a single brute is representative of the daily grazing orbit and movement patterns of the balance of the herd [sixteen, 18, 21]. Tracking ane fauna from a migrating herd with GPS engineering science provides, therefore, a suitable framework for studying transhumance routes and migration patterns during long-altitude movements.

Movements and contact patterns inside and betwixt creature populations are known to be central drivers of livestock affliction dynamics [iv] and empirical information, including precise seasonal cattle transhumance trajectories, would help informing a more bear witness-based approach to animal wellness management in Cameroon. This builds on recent piece of work for improving the understanding of cattle trade-related movements [24] and for identifying constraints for disease controls in pastoral and modest-scale livestock husbandry and production systems in Cameroon [25]. An increased understanding of the common patterns and practices during this seasonal migration would aid informing the veterinarian authorities in designing interventions aiming at enhancing disease surveillance and improving disease command in the written report areas.

Here, nosotros present the commencement formal report of transhumance patterns in Cameroon, while assessing the feasibility of applying GPS neckband devices on cattle herds for the entire duration of the migration. Cattle herds originally located in the Adamawa Region of Republic of cameroon were tracked for a menstruation of over six months. Upon their return from seasonal pastoral movements, a questionnaire-based survey was used to collect further information on tracked herds' experience during their migration. The objectives of this study were (one) to characterise the seasonal transhumance routes and daily motion patterns of a restricted puddle of cattle herds normally grazing in the Adamawa Region, and (2) to describe the main animal health related issues and interaction patterns during this long-distance migration.

Methods

Report area and herd identification

The Adamawa Region is mainly an open woodland Guinea savannah ecotype higher up 1000 thousand, covering an area of approximately 64,000 km2. It is considered to be the main cattle production area of Cameroon with a reported cattle population of about i.25 one thousand thousand head of cattle [26].

Between October and Nov 2014, a convenience sample of ten cattle herds whose possessor/herdsman were prepared to participate in the study were identified. It was possible to select herds originating/commonly grazing in three different Divisions (one administrative level beneath Region) of the Adamawa Region. This convenience sample was the only applicable due to the nature of the context and the complexity of identifying suitable and available candidates willing to participate in the report. In similar settings, cattle herds have been observed to synchronise their behaviour, to a large extent, to more than socially ascendant individuals, particularly during travelling and grazing activities [27,28,29]. In each herd, one beast was selected to carry the GPS device. Selection was offset based on discussions with the herdsman to identify socially ascendant animals within their herd. Each identified animal was and so inspected clinically to ensure that they were robust and healthy. Details on the animals called to carry the GPS device in each selected herd are shown in Table 1.

Tabular array ane Cattle herds identified in the Adamawa Region of Cameroon in Oct and Nov 2014

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Data collection

Lightweight (320 g) GPS collars (Savannah Tracking Ltd., Kenya) with global organisation for mobile (GSM) communications network access and on-lath backup data storage were fitted to each selected animal. The data collection schedule and data recording parameters were set through an on-line software interface. The GPS sampling frequency was ready to every ii h and manual over the GSM network was set for once daily in accordance with other studies tracking cattle in like settings [11, xv, 30]. More frequent GPS sampling would take provided the opportunity to increase the accuracy of the estimates of distances travelled between GPS locations over the ascertainment menses [31, 32]. However, the merchandise-off between information storage capacity, the expected elapsing of the transhumance and the GSM network coverage, led to identify this as the optimal sampling frequency for the objectives of the current study.

The GPS collars were retrieved upon return from transhumance in May 2015 and sent dorsum to Savannah Tracking Ltd. in Kenya to call back the stored data that could not be downloaded through the GSM network. The lightweight (320 g) GPS collars were easily retrieved from the tracked animals of each herd that later the study continued to be office of their herds. The datasets from each collar unit were downloaded as csv files and included the complete record of the latitude and longitude and the travelling speed (km/hour) at each recording indicate and an estimation of the accuracy of the location. In improver, at the fourth dimension of recovering the collar, a structured interview was carried out with the returning herdsmen. The questionnaire took 15–20 min to administer and aimed at collecting data on the daily routines of the herd and herd management practices during the transhumance period, including beast health conditions, interactions with livestock or wild fauna populations and on trading activities. The hard copies of the questionnaires were manually transcribed to pre-designed Excel 2007 (Microsoft) spreadsheet and stored as a csv file.

Data assay

A combination of descriptive analytical approaches was applied to narrate the transhumance trajectories of the tracked cattle and to appraise the general characteristics of the period of movements of the tracked herds. The recorded GPS coordinates and speed of travel of the tracked cattle were assessed using simple descriptive tools such as histograms and interquartile box plots.

The altitude traveled between any two consecutive recorded GPS locations was estimated in kilometers using latitude/longitude (degree) georeferences and calculating the Euclidean altitude between these GPS locations. The distances travelled were too aggregated at daily and weekly intervals in order to assess the variability of the distances travelled by the unlike tracked herds over different intervals. This was then used to characterize the range of daily distances traveled and to guess the daily hateful distances travelled during each of the weeks of observation.

A hot spot assay [33] was carried out to assist identification of locations with unusual high concentrations of data points, identifying spatial clusters. In club to identify and count these hot spots, or activity locations, 2D kernel density were used [34]. Kernel density estimation is a non-parametric method where a symmetrical kernel function is superimposed over each GPS location and requires the definition of a spatial and temporal parameter [35]. The spatial parameter, or bandwidth value, corresponds to the roaming radius while the temporal parameter defines the minimal duration of stay at a given location to qualify as a significant stop. For the purpose of this study, the temporal parameter was given by the time between any two GPS recordings (2 h) and the spatial parameter (bandwidth) was set to a cell size likely to host all of the cattle of the tracked herd according to field observations (500 m) [34].

All analyses and graphics were performed using the raster [36], rgdal [37], ks [38] and ggplot2 [39] packages in the statistical software R version three.2.3 [40].

Ethical statement

This research was authorised by the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Animate being Industries (MINEPIA) (Research permit number: 0119/MINRESI/B00/C00/C010/nye), and approved by the Cameroon University of Sciences (approval number 0371/CAS/PR/ES/PO). In the U.k. approval was given by the Veterinarian Upstanding Review Commission (VERC) of the Royal (Dick) Veterinary Schoolhouse of the University of Edinburgh (approving number 28/14).

All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Interviewers were trained to provide the information regarding the consent procedure to exist communicated to the participants and the informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Oral consent was obtained due to the variable level of literacy of the respondents. Prior to interviewing, the study objectives, procedures and the content of the questionnaires were also explained to the participants who were made aware that they were under no obligation to participate if they did non want to.

Results

Neckband and data retrieval

Out of the ten deployed GPS collar units, all of them were successfully retrieved from the animals in May 2015, including 7 with consummate records of spatial locations and three collars with partial records. Amid the seven collars with complete records, one collar belonged to a herd whose herder finally decided not to get on transhumance. Partial recordings from the three collars were due to the retention being overwritten with afterward locations as a consequence of poor GSM network coverage which resulted in excessive use of the on-lath retentiveness storage. One time (collar 1350) the recordings were almost entirely unavailable, likely due to a concomitant technical failure of the GPS device. Data retrieved from collars 1303 and 1307 were only partially complete, 42 and 44% of the transhumance days, respectively. As a effect, these three collars were excluded and, along with the herd that failed to get out on transhumance, left information from 6 collars for analysis.

Spatial movements of the tracked herds

The six herds that went on transhumance showed dissimilar migratory patterns (Fig. one and Table 2). In most cases (5/six) the seasonal migration was towards the southern Regions of the country (herd 1299, 1302 and 1308 to the Centre Region; herd 1301 and 1305 to the East Region), while in one case it was towards the north, to the N Region (herd 1300). The three herds migrating to the Heart Region were directed towards areas of the Mbam and Djerem National Park (well-nigh 170 km of altitude from their origin), while the 2 herds migrating to the East Region were directed towards the Pangar and Djerem Reserve (about 150 and 120 km from their origin, respectively). The herd migrating towards north was directed to the Mayo-Rey Division of the North Region of Cameroon, 53 km from its origin. The elapsing of the transhumance was relatively similar among the half dozen herds and varied between 26 and 32 weeks. Although the direct line distances between the origin and the concluding destination of the transhumance ranged betwixt 53 and 170 km, the overall estimated distance covered by the herds during the whole duration of the transhumance was relatively similar, ranging between 633 and 763 km.

Fig. 1

Transhumance trajectories of the 6 tracked herds that undertook seasonal migration in Central Republic of cameroon (October 2014–May 2015) and that successfully recorded a full dataset. The trajectories of each GPS collar are displayed with a different colour on the section of the Cameroonian map. The black 10 indicates the starting point of the transhumance. Console a displays the trajectories over the map of Cameroon, while Console b focuses on the Regions of Central Cameroon

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Table 2 Distances travelled by the cattle herds during transhumance in Cardinal Republic of cameroon (October 2014–May 2015)

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Speed and daily movements

The speed of motility of the tracked herds, as recorded every two h, ranged between 0.1 and 7.8 km/hr (Fig. 2a). The overall median speed of each of the 6 herds during the whole period of observation ranged between 0.48 and 1.02 km/hour (Fig. 2b). Although the absolute range of the recorded speed was approximately like between the herds, herds 1305 and 1308 displayed a wider interquartile range of speeds compared to the other herds (0.48–one.82 km/hour and 0.51–ane.91 km/hr, respectively) (Fig. 2b).

Fig. ii

Speed of movement of the transhumant herds tracked betwixt October 2014 and May 2015 in Central Cameroon (in km/hour). a: Distribution of the recorded speed of movements at each GPS captured location for the tracked cattle (km/hour on the x-axis and counts on the y-axis). b: Boxplot of the recorded speed of movements at each GPS captured location for each tracked cattle (x axis). For each box the dots refer to the recorded speed at each GPS captured location, the upper and lower hinges correspond to the 1st and 3rd quartiles (the 25th and 75th percentiles) and the horizontal line to the median value

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Overall, herds showed consistent patterns of movements across the 24 h cycle. The mean speed of the herds tended to increase between 06:00 and 18:00 h. Similarly, the absolute peaks of speed were recorded within this fourth dimension window (Additional file 1: Effigy S1). Even so, beyond the whole study period, all the half-dozen herds were recorded to have moved at least 4 km/hour, during all of the recorded time points throughout the 24 h daily cycle. In other words, during the study period herds were recorded making meaning movements even during the dark.

The daily distance travelled by a herd ranged between 0.3 and 22.9 km/day, with 86% of herd-days below 5 km/day (Fig. 3a). The median distance covered per day by each herd over the whole transhumance catamenia ranged betwixt 3.2 and 4.ane km/day (Fig. 3b). Only during relative short periods greater daily distances were travelled and these were mainly at the offset and end of the migration, reflecting movements from and to the primary transhumance grazing zone (Fig. 4). Even so, in 3 cases (herds 1299, 1305 and 1308) greater daily distances were also travelled during other weeks of the transhumance. Overall, these periods of higher median daily travelled distance tended to last between 1 and iii weeks (Fig. four). Herd 1300 was an exception, with an overall shorter weekly median daily distance travelled across the whole period of ascertainment.

Fig. three

Daily distances covered by the transhumant herds in Cardinal Cameroon between October 2014 and May 2015. a: Distribution of the daily distances walked past the tracked cattle (distance in km on the x-centrality and counts on the y-axis). b: Boxplot of the daily distance travelled by each tracked cattle (x-centrality). For each box the dots refer to the the daily distance for each day of observation, the upper and lower hinges correspond to the 1st and 3rd quartiles (the 25th and 75th percentiles) and the horizontal line to the median value

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Fig. 4

Mean and ranges of the daily distances walked during each week of the transhumance period between October 2014 and May 2015 in Cardinal Cameroon. For each tracked cattle the mean estimated daily distance walked during each week of ascertainment is represented by the heart line while the upper and lower lines represent, respectively, the largest and shortest distances walked in each weeks

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The hot spot, or activity locations, assay, also showed geographical areas where the herds spent longer periods of action and areas where, by the reverse, the herds were but transiting (Fig. 5). For all of the tracked herds the origin and destination of the migration represented hot spots of activity. Nonetheless, herds 1299, 1305 and 1308 spent longer periods as well in other zones along their transhumance routes (Fig. 5).

Fig. v

Hot spot assay of the locations visited during the transhumance period between October 2014 and May 2015 in Central Cameroon. On the left side of the effigy the trajectories of each GPS collar are displayed with a different colour on the section of the Cameroonian map. On the right side two-dimensional density plots of the recorded GPS locations. The trajectories are displayed by the dots of unlike colour representing the GPS locations recorded per each collar. The intensity of the colour reflects the occurrence (count) of GPS recordings (counts of observations) at each specific area (eastward.k.: most of the GPS locations of collars number 1301 and 1302 were recorded in two locations while, on the opposite, the GPS locations of collar 1305 were mainly recorded in 5 areas). In both sides of the effigy the black Ten indicates the starting point of the transhumance

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Contacts and interactions with other cattle herds during transhumance

During periods of active trekking and movement towards transhumance destinations or returning back from these locations, v/nine herdsmen reported that > 15 cattle herds were normally encountered each day (Fig. 6a). The iv other herdsmen reported routinely encountering 1–3, 4–5, six–10 and 11–xv other cattle herds per twenty-four hours, respectively. In contrast, in grazing areas such equally the transhumance destinations, herds tended to meet fewer other herds per day: only 1 herdsman reported that more than 15 cattle herds were encountered on an average solar day at this location, 2 herdsmen reported a mean of 11 to 15 and all the other reported fewer contacts (Fig. 6b).

Fig. 6

Encounters with other animal species and mutual wellness issues reported during transhumance in Central Republic of cameroon (October 2014–May 2015). a and b report the frequency of specific answers from each of the ix interviewees. c and d study the sum of the times animals species and diseases were mentioned by the nine interviewees. a: Reported number of cattle herds encountered on average every day during the trekking towards transhumance destinations or returning towards the usual grazing locations. The plot displays the answers of the interviewees and the red line refers to the number of reports by the ix interviewees. b: Reported number of cattle herds encountered on average every 24-hour interval during grazing activities at the transhumance destination. The plot displays the answers of the interviewees and the red line refers to the number of reports by the 9 interviewees. c: Reported species of domestic and wild animals encountered during the transhumance. The plot displays the fauna species and the red line refers to the number of reports past the interviewees. d: Reported health problems faced by the herds during the transhumance. The plot displays the reported health problems and the red line refers to the number of reports by the interviewees

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The typical elapsing of these encounters was estimated past half dozen/9 herdsmen to terminal less than 1 h, while 2/9 herdsmen reported a duration of interaction between 4 and 6 h and one/ix between 13 and 24 h (Boosted file 1: Figure S2). Interestingly, ii of the tracked herds (1301 and 1305) physically met during the menstruation of ascertainment (Additional file one: Figure S3). The come across lasted, approximately, between 4 and 6 h, while herds were returning from the seasonal migration, and was in a usual grazing location for the herd 1305, simply nearly 59 km from the migration origin of herd 1301.

Contacts with other fauna species and wellness issues reported during transhumance

Herders were asked what other animate being species had been encountered during the transhumance. Among domestic species, sheep were the most frequently encountered and reported past all the nine interviewees, followed past poultry (five/9 herdsmen), goats (4/ix herdsmen), horses and dogs (3/ix herdsmen) and pigs (one/ix herdsmen). The about frequently encountered wild fauna species were the antelopes (4/9 herdsmen), followed past warthogs (two/9 herdsmen) and buffaloes (1/9 herdsmen) and another unspecified animal (i/9 herdsmen) (Fig. 6c).

Among the reported health problems faced by the cattle herds during the transhu- mance period, the most unremarkably reported was trypanosomiasis (7/ix herdsmen) followed past liver fluke (4/9 herdsmen), foot and mouth disease (FMD) (3/9 herdsmen), dermatophilosis (ii/9 herdsmen) and establish intoxication (one/ix herdsmen) (Fig. 6d).

When assessing the causes of death of cattle during transhumance, accidents were reported as having acquired the loss of at least ane animate being (5/9 herdsmen), followed by disease (4/ix herdsmen) and by plant intoxication (3/nine herdsmen) (Table 3).

Tabular array 3 Number of herdsmen reporting cattle expiry and trade during the transhumance flow (Oct 2014–May 2015). NH: Number of herdsmen reporting events; NC: Number of cattle involved in each reported consequence

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Trading activities during transhumance

None of the herdsmen (0/ix) reported having acquired cattle during the transhumance menstruum, either from livestock markets or from outside the trading system. However, 4 (4/9) herdsmen reported having sold cattle at livestock markets during the transhumance, while two (two/nine) herdsmen reported having sold cattle exterior the trading system (Table 3). When traded at the market identify, respectively, 2/45, 3/35, 3/40 and 5/93 cattle were sold, while 1/45 and 3/57 cattle were sold outside the marketplace place (Table 3).

Give-and-take

In SSA, seasonal livestock mobility is an important adaptation mechanism for pastoralist communities, and a key strategy to manage the variability of the natural resources in the ecosystem [1]. In Republic of cameroon, transhumance is a common exercise for many pastoralists and their cattle herds to cope with the ecological and environmental constraints of the dry flavor. However, noesis of migratory routes and patterns in Central Cameroon, and their potential implications for infectious diseases epidemiology and prevention, is still express. Hither, we characterized migrating patterns of a few, simply representative, GPS-tracked cattle herds and described key activities and experiences along their transhumance across Primal Republic of cameroon.

Long daily distances were relatively rarely traveled (approximately 15% of the recorded days), typically at the beginning and the finish of the transhumance. During these periods of more than active mobility, an boilerplate speed of movement uniform with traveling behavior (between 3 and 4 km/hour) was more often than not recorded during the daylight, consistently to reports in the East African rangelands [41]. However, herds were traveling at any time during transhumance, irrespective of being 24-hour interval or night. Overall, the proportion of daily distances traveled and the variability of walking speed are in line with previous findings in East and W Africa [31, 41, 42].

Over the six GPS-tracked herds we found three cattle herds having multiple repeated traveling and grazing periods through different temporary transhumance locations. Similarly to previous findings in SSA [41, 43], hence, the seasonal cattle transhumance in Central Republic of cameroon, rather than a simple transit between 2 locations, tended to be a more complex journeying through multiple grazing areas. This migration lasted a meaning length of time (fifty-fifty greater than half of the twelvemonth). Furthermore, the trajectories of all of the iii tracked herds moving from the Fundamental-Eastern function of the Adamawa Region towards the Center Region highlighted the presence of a mutual migratory route, or transhumance corridor. In Northern Cameroon, and the larger Chad Bowl, pastoralists and their herds move through established transhumance corridors connecting seasonal grazing lands [44]. Farther confirmation of the observed migratory routes between the Adamawa and the Central Regions can provide prove of common transhumance corridors and of import indications for designing strategic and efficient veterinary interventions. For example, surveillance posts could be established along these corridors for providing fauna health services to the migrating herds (e.g. costless dipping or spraying points), and potentially using these locations for control measures (e.g. vaccination points). In addition, if the common transhumance destinations in the Primal Region can be further confirmed for a high number of cattle herds, and over multiple years, it would advise these zones should be considered equally high cattle density areas in Cameroon, at to the lowest degree for a significant role of the year. This information would provide evidence for appropriately considering these areas inside infectious diseases surveillance and control strategies.

Multiple grazing locations during transhumance increase exposure of herds to geographically express or seasonally abundant diseases [5]. In our survey, most herdsmen reported trypanosomiasis and liver fluke as health problems for their herds. This finding suggests that, while grazing areas provide greener pastures and greater water resource (e.1000. natural water points) for transhumant herds, they as well offer ideal habitats for vector and parasites proliferation [45]. As such, transhumant herds potentially contribute to the persistence and circulation of vector-borne diseases and parasites in Cameroon [45].

Because of the complexity of engaging stakeholders in this study, it was non possible to employ a statistically robust sampling arroyo. Instead, we used a convenient sampling of a express number of cattle herds. Clearly, this is a major shortcoming of this survey and additional studies, with increased number of herds, are required to confirm our findings. In item, our survey provides data of simply a few diseases affecting cattle herds through anecdotal reporting and without any supporting laboratory evidence. Although this listing is certainly not exhaustive, we believe that it represents the list of infectious diseases which are perceived by herdsmen every bit the most important for their herds. It is also worth noting that the reported health conditions included infectious diseases for which direct contacts between animals are primal manual mechanisms (e.g. FMD and dermatophilosis), and which are well recognized past livestock stakeholders in the study areas [46].

During transhumance, especially while traveling towards grazing areas, cattle herds tended to have more frequent contacts with other herds and with wildlife, compared to when they are sedentary at grazing locations. Despite this variability in contact rates, the interactions between cattle herds, both during traveling and at grazing areas, were reported to have relatively brusque durations (< 1 h). Nevertheless, a brusk contact time, especially if at close proximity, could exist sufficient for the transmission of highly infectious diseases, especially during the tiptop of the infectious periods [47, 48].

Over the viii months of written report, two tracked herds, which originated from very distant areas, were recorded in contact at the aforementioned grazing location for 4 to 6 h. This observation confirms that opportunities for shut interactions occur not just locally, at transhumance destinations with communal grazing, only also through the transhumance migration routes. This finding further reinforces the potential strategic part of veterinarian surveillance and control points along the migratory routes, or transhumance corridors. Veterinarian check points would represent key locations for designing and implementing efficient surveillance and command measures confronting infectious and parasitic diseases, including other priority livestock diseases in Cameroon other than the ones highlighted in this study, such equally pasteurellosis, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and tick-borne diseases [45].

During the transhumance period, herdsmen of 6 of the nine herds under study reported to have sold cattle, either within or outside the formal trading organization. Although livestock markets are known to greatly influence the spread of multiple infectious diseases throughout livestock industries [49,fifty,51], they are besides places where social and cultural interactions occur. Such a study highlights the role of markets as an interface between the pastoral and the trading systems in the country. It too underlines their potential complementary role for risk-based approaches to surveillance, control and communication strategies for pastoral communities.

Although infectious diseases are the major beast health trouble for the livestock sector in Republic of cameroon [3, 45], the about normally reported causes of death for cattle during transhumance included accidents and plant intoxications. Despite the small sample size available for this written report, these findings prove that transhumance presents specific challenges. Trekking for long distances poses specific risks and higher exposures for various types of physical accidents and environmental hazards, including plant intoxication for which very little cognition is currently available. Furthermore, long distance livestock migrations may generate conflicts between pastoralists and local farming communities over limited natural resources and damages to crops [52, 53].

The potential tension so arising could pose additional security challenges to herds, as informally reported during the information drove of the electric current study.

Conclusion

This limited study provides a general characterization of cattle transhumance pat- terns and of the cardinal associated issues in Central Cameroon. The spatial and temporal overlapping between tracked cattle herds highlighted the opportunity for directly contacts and interactions between herds of afar origins, also as with other domestic and wildlife species, both during traveling and grazing periods. The recorded speed of movement and interaction frequencies, and durations, hence, could potentially inform parametrization of further epidemiological studies.

Specific infectious and parasitic diseases were reported affecting the migrating herds, however concrete accidents and environmental hazards (eastward.k. institute intoxications) were also reported as central factors impacting these herds. Importantly, the transhumant herds accept also been shown to connect to the formal cattle trading organisation, highlighting the complexity of the pastoral, only increasingly marketplace-orientated, livestock organisation in the state.

The overall label of transhumnce patterns in the study areas, and the related key aspects, stand for a preliminary step for amend agreement their implications in the epidemiology of livestock infectious diseases, and for their potential applications to inform surveillance and control strategies.

The further confirmation of some of the characterized migratory routes as common transhumance corridors, would provide the prove to strategically blueprint robust and efficient surveillance and control interventions at key locations.

Increased knowledge and understanding of pastoral movements and contacts between livestock populations at local and long-distance levels is essential for supporting the veterinarian services in designing and planning more than effective surveillance and control strategies of infectious diseases. Because the key role of livestock transhumance as a cardinal adaptation and ecological management mechanism for pastoralist communities in the region, this seasonal migration should exist increasingly addressed in animal wellness management.

Abbreviations

CBPP:

Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia

FMD:

Foot and mouth disease

GPS:

Global positioning system

GSM:

Global arrangement for mobile

MINEPIA:

Ministry building of Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries

SSA:

Sub-Saharan Africa

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the herds owners and keepers for their willingness to be involved in the research. In addition, the authors gratefully acknowledge all the Delegates and veterinarians of the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Beast Industries (MINEPIA) for their cooperation in the report. Florian Druke for his support during the trekking for reaching some of these cattle herds and Henrik Rasmussen of Savannah Tracking Ltd (http://www.savannahtracking.com/) for technical support with the GPS collars.

Funding

P.Grand. was supported past the University of Edinburgh through a Principal's Career Development Scholarship. B.M.B. receives cadre strategic funding from the BBSRC (BB/J004235/1). The funding body was not involved in the pattern of the study and collection, assay, and interpretation of information and writing of the manuscript.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analysed during the electric current study are bachelor from the respective writer on reasonable request.

Author information

Affiliations

1. The Roslin Institute, Imperial (Dick) Schoolhouse of Veterinarian Studies, Academy of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Easter Bush-league, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK

   Paolo Motta, Thibaud Porphyre & Barend Mark Bronsvoort

2. The European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (EuFMD) - Food and Agricolture Organization (FAO), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153, Rome, Italy

   Paolo Motta

3. Institute of Agricultural Research for Development, Regional Centre of Wakwa, Ngaoundere, P.O. Box 454, Cameroon

   Saidou M. Hamman

4. Constitute of Ageing and Chronic Disease and School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Liverpool, Wirral, CH64 7TE, UK

   Kenton L. Morgan

5. School of Veterinary Medicine and Sciences, University of Ngaoundere, Ngaoundere, P.O. Box 454, Cameroon

   Victor Ngu Ngwa

6. Republic of cameroon Academy of Sciences, Yaound'due east, P.O. Box 1457, Cameroon

   Vincent N. Tanya

7. Nutrient and Agriculture Arrangement (FAO), Beast Production and Health Division, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153, Rome, Italy

   Eran Raizman

8. Royal (Dick) School of Veterinarian Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush-league, Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, Great britain

   Ian G. Handel

Contributions

PM, IH, VT, ER, KLM and BMB contributed to the design of the study; PM, VNN and SMH performed the field piece of work. PM conducted the analyses, interpreted the results and wrote the manuscript. TP provided statistical supports. TP, IH, ER, KLM and BMB revised and reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the last manuscript.

Corresponding writer

Correspondence to Paolo Motta.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approving

This research was authorised by the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Beast Industries (MINEPIA) (Research permit number: 0119/MINRESI/B00/C00/C010/nye), and approved by the Republic of cameroon Academy of Sciences (blessing number 0371/CAS/PR/ES/PO). In the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland approval was given by the Veterinary Ethical Review Commission (VERC) of the Royal (Dick) Veterinarian School of the Academy of Edinburgh (approval number 28/xiv).

All methods were performed in accord with the relevant guidelines and regulations and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Interviewers were trained to provide the data regarding the consent process to be communicated to the participants and the informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Oral consent was obtained considering of the variable level of literacy of the respondents. Prior to interviewing, the study objectives, procedures and the content of the questionnaires were also explained to the participants who were made aware that they were under no obligation to participate if they did not desire to.

Competing interests

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of involvement.

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Additional file

Additional file i:

Figure S1. Mean and ranges of the speed over the 24 h catamenia. For each tracked cattle the speed of movements was recorded every ii hours of the observation flow. The middle line represents the mean speed at that hour of the day while the upper and lower lines stand for, respectively, the fastest and slowest speed recorded at that specific time during the observation period. Figure S2. Reported duration of interaction with other cattle herds. On the x axis the reported usual duration of interaction with other cattle herds during transhumance and on the y centrality the number of interviewees. Effigy S3. Recorded encounter between two tracked herds. The herdsmen of these 2 herds (1301 and 1305) reported having met each other at the time of interview. The analysis of the GPS recordings enabled to identify the verbal time and location of this encounter. The herds were recorded interacting for about 4 h between 8 am and 12 am of the 23rd April 2015, while returning to their respective grazing locations for the rainy season. (PDF 710 kb)

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Motta, P., Porphyre, T., Hamman, South.One thousand. et al. Cattle transhumance and agropastoral nomadic herding practices in Central Cameroon. BMC Vet Res 14, 214 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-018-1515-z

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• Received: 09 August 2017

• Accepted: 05 June 2018

• Published: 03 July 2018

• DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-018-1515-z

Keywords

• Transhumance
• Cameroon
• GPS
• Cattle
• Livestock movements

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